Semantics is the scientific study of meaning in human language. It examines how form (sounds, written symbols, grammatical structures) is systematically related to meaning. It analyzes linguistic units such as words, phrases, and sentences, and asks how physical signals (speech, writing) convey meaning.
Meaning
Meaning is the content or information expressed by a linguistic form—what it refers to or is about (objects, people, events, relations, states of affairs). It is what allows language to communicate and represent the world.
Semiotic triangle (Ogden & Richards, 1923)
A model that explains how meaning arises through three elements:
- Symbol (sign vehicle) – the word or expression (e.g., “tree”).
- Thought (concept, sense) – the mental idea associated with the word.
- Referent – the actual object or entity in the world (a real tree).
There is no direct link between the symbol and the referent. The connection is mediated by the thought/concept. In other words, words do not directly “attach” to things; they work through human cognition.
The referent can vary between speakers because concepts differ. Different people may associate slightly different meanings with the same word.
- Semantic Concept: In the “triangle of meaning,” a concept (or thought/sense) is the indirect link between a word and the real-world thing it refers to.
Lexicalization
Lexicalization: This refers to the process of semantic material being packaged into words. It involves three aspects: lexicalization proper (the verbalization of semantic concepts), the process of a term becoming part of the lexicon, and the acquisition of idiomatic meaning.
Lexicalization strategies
- word manifacture: Nylon, Teflon, to xerox
- use of phonaesthemes/sound symbolism:
- sl- →’slippery’: slide, slip, slither, slush, sluice, sludge or ‘pejorative’: slattern, slang, sly, sloppy, slovenly
- onomatopoeia: splosh, mumble
- borrowing: tsunami, siesta, kindergarten
- recycling existing linguistic units:
- putting existing linguistic units to new uses through interpretation (metaphors, metonymy, etc.)
- word-building, i.e. some combination of existing lexical elements: motel, laser, baby-sit
- Lexical Typology: The characteristic way a language lexicalizes concepts.
- Conceptual Meaning: Also known as denotative or cognitive meaning, this is the logical content of a word and is considered the central factor in linguistic communication.
Word Relations and Hierarchies
- Hyponym and Hyperonym
- Hyponymy is a relationship of inclusion where the meaning of one word is part of another. A hyponym is a specific, subordinate term (e.g., “tulip”), while a hyperonym (or superordinate) is the more general term (e.g., “flower”).
- Meronymy (or Partonymy): This is a “part-of” hierarchy. A meronym (or partonym) is a constituent part of a whole (e.g., “finger” is a meronym of “hand”), and the whole is called a holonym.
- Synonym: Words that share the same conceptual meaning but may differ in stylistic, social, or affective meaning (e.g., “steed” vs. “horse”).
- Antonym: Words that express opposite meanings, such as “old” and “new”. They can be gradable (hot–cold) or ungradable/complementary (male–female).
- DIRECTIONAL OPPOSITES – up/down
- COMPLEMENTARIES – aunt/uncle
- HETERONYMS (non-binary) – March/May
- Homophone and Homograph: Both are types of homonyms. Homophones sound the same but have different meanings, while homographs are written the same but have different meanings.
- Polysemy vs. Homonymy
- Polysemy occurs when a single word has multiple related meanings, whereas homonymy involves separate words that happen to share the same form (written or spoken).
Lexical Structures and Gaps
- Lexical Fields and Semantic Domains: These are groups of semantically related words that structure a language’s vocabulary (e.g., the field of “cooking” includes boil, fry, grill). Semantic domain is another term for these organized structures.
- Lexical and Grammatical Gaps: These are “holes” in the linguistic system.
- Lexical gaps occur when a language lacks a word for a concept (e.g., having a word for a human corpse but not a specific single word for an animal “corpse” other than carcass).
- Grammatical gaps occur when a word lacks a specific form (e.g., “chaos” having no plural form).
- Context and Relevance: The way a language lexicalizes concepts is often driven by what is relevant to its speakers; for example, Eskimo languages have many specific words for different types of snow (aput, quana, piqsirpoc) because of its environmental importance.
- Structuralism in Semantics: This approach posits that words do not exist in isolation; their meanings are defined by their paradigmatic relations—the sense relations they have with other words in the system.
- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: How different languages “package” reality differently. (General linguistic knowledge defines this hypothesis as the idea that the structure of a language influences its speakers’ worldviews).
Types of Meaning
- Conceptual (basic sense),
- Connotative (social/cultural associations),
- Social (stylistic), Affective (feelings of the speaker),
- Reflected (associations with another sense of the word),
- Collocative (meaning from words it usually appears with), and
- Thematic (meaning based on message organization).
Five functions of language
1. Informational (referential)
Language used to convey facts or information about the world.
- Linked to conceptual meaning.
- Example: “It’s snowing outside.”
2. Expressive (emotive)
Language used to express the speaker’s feelings, attitudes, or opinions.
- Linked to affective meaning.
- Example: “Jane has black hair” (informational) + “and I think it’s a nice colour” (expressive).
3. Directive (conative)
Language used to influence the behaviour or attitudes of others.
- Includes commands, requests, suggestions, often indirect.
- Examples:
- “Open the door!”
- “It’s hot here!” (= request to open a window)
- “Do you have a watch?” (= asking for the time)
4. Aesthetic (poetic)
Language used for its form, style, and artistic effect.
- Focus on the message itself (sound, rhythm, figurative language).
- Common in literature and poetry.
5. Phatic
Language used to establish or maintain social contact, not to convey information.
- Term: “phatic communion” (Malinowski).
- Examples: greetings, small talk (“Hi,” “How are you?”).
- Function: keep communication channels open and maintain relationships.
Semiotics
Semiotics is the science that studies signs and sign systems in social life (as defined by Ferdinand de Saussure). It provides a unified framework for analyzing how different kinds of signs produce meaning.
Three types of signs
1. Index – A sign that has a direct, natural connection to what it signifies.
- Not arbitrary, not based on convention.
- Based on cause or physical association.
- Examples: smoke → fire; footprints → someone passed.
- The form of the sign is linked to real-world conditions.
2. Icon – A sign that resembles what it represents.
- Not fully arbitrary; partly conventional.
- Based on similarity or likeness.
- Examples: photographs, maps, pictograms, road signs.
- The form shares visual or structural features with the referent.
3. Symbol – A sign whose meaning is based on social convention.
- Arbitrary and learned.
- No natural connection between form and meaning.
- Examples: words in natural language, mathematical symbols, programming languages.
- The relationship between signifier (form) and signified (meaning) exists only because users of the language agree on it.